SAMBAL BELACAN SEDAP

BAHAN-BAHAN:

3/4 balang blender cili api hijau dan merah yang telah diblend
3 ketul belacan size telor grade C (dibakar hingga garing)
3 ulas bawang merah yang telah dibakar dengan kulit sekali
12 ulas bawang putih yang agak besar sizenya
3 1/2 sudu besar gula putih
1 1/2 sudu besar garam halus
1 sudu besar ajinomoto
4 biji limau nipis sedang besarnya

7 CARA MENGATASI GIGI GOYANG SECARA ALAMI

Gigi yang goyang pada umumnya dialami oleh balita yang memang sudah akan tumbuh gigi permanen untuk menggantikan gigi susu mereka. Nah, bagaimana jika hal ini terjadi pada orang dewasa? Ya, gigi yang goyang bisa saja dialami oleh orang dewasa yang diakibatkan oleh beberapa faktor seperti benturan, kebiasaan konsumsi makanan yang tidak sehat, atau sebab lainnya. Oleh karena itu, sangat penting untuk mengetahui cara mengatasi gigi goyang agar segera mendapatkan penanganan yang tepat.


Terdapat bermacam faktor yang bisa memicu timbulnya gigi goyang. Penyebab tersebut umumnya bisa dihindari secara pribadi sehingga tidak muncul gangguan gigi goyang yang terasa tidak enak di mulut. Pemicu gigi goyang diantaranya adalah:

Faktor genetik, anda bisa mengalami gigi goyang yang muncul secara berulang jika ternyata itu merupakan akibat dari faktor keturunan.
Efek samping obat-obatan, penggunaan obat-obatan tertentu juga memicu risiko pada kerusakan lapisan gigi yang membuat gigi mudah rapuh.
Kurang menjaga kebersihan mulut dan kesehatan mulut
Sering merokok atau mengonsumsi makanan manis
Sering mengonsumsi makanan panas dan dingin secara berlebihan.
Gigi goyang memang sangat mengganggu terutama aktifitas didalam mulut. Selain itu, gigi goyang juga akan berpengaruh tidak hanya pada proses mengunyah makanan tetapi juga saat berbicara. Penanganan gigi goyang bisa dilakukan dengan jalan medis maupun tradisional. Adanya penanganan tersebut tidak hanya berfungsi untuk menghilangkan gigi goyang melainkan juga bermanfaat mencegah timbulnya gigi goyang berikutnya. Berikut ini adalah contoh penanganan gigi goyang yang bisa dilakukan.

Cara Mengatasi Gigi Goyang

1. Garam
Garam mengandung mineral yang sangat tinggi sehingga bisa anda manfaatkan untuk membantu mengatasi gigi goyang yang anda miliki.

Cara yang pernlu dilakukan adalah dengan berkumur air garam. Anda bisa membuat air garam ini dengan mencampurkan 3 sendok teh garam dapur pada bebeapa bagian air hangat.

Gunakan air tersebut untuk berkumur setiap pagi dan malam setelah gigi anda bersih. Secara rutin, air garam akan membantu meredakan infeksi dan membersihkan berbagai kuman yang ada pada mulut.

2. Mustard
MustardMustard merupakan contoh bahan alami lain yang bisa dimanfaatkan untuk mengatasi gigi goyang. Keluhan gigi goyang anda bisa perlahan pulih dengan menggunakan mustard.

Minyak mustard atau disebut juga dengan minyak moster mengandung asam yang khas dari tanaman sesawi. Selain itu, minyak mustard juga mengandung kalsium, magnesium serta kalium yang penting untuk kekuatan gigi. mineral yang terkandung didalamnya berfungsi untuk menambah kepadatan gigi anda.



Langkahnya:

Sediakan 2 sdm minyak mustard
Siapkan 1 sdt garam meja yang halus
Campurkan kedua bahan tersebut hingga membentuk krim, kemudian oleskan pada gigi serta gusi yang mengalami kerapuhan atau gigi goyang
Bilas atau kumur hingga bersih
Lakukan secara rutin setiap pagi untuk membantu menjaga kekuatan gigi anda yang goyang tadi serta mengurangi kerapuhan gigi
3. Buah Cerme
Buah CermeBuah cerme atau cermai seringkali digunakan untuk bermain saat masih kecil. Pohonnya yang rindang dan penuh tersebut berfungsi melindungi diri dari terik panas matahari. Namun, siapa yang menyangka bahwa buah berasa sangat asam ini mengandung banyak manfaat terutama bagi kesehatan mulut. Buah crème kaya vitamin C, itu sudah pasti. Kandungan dalam buah crème selain vitamin C adalah mineral yang efektif membantu menguatkan gigi goyang.

Cara yang perlu anda lakukan adalah mencampurkan buah crème yang sudah diambil ekstraknya dengan cara diperas atau dihaluskan terlebih dulu dengan segelas minuman hangat. Minuman bisa berupa teh, atau susu sesuai selera anda. Lebih mudahnya, anda bisa langsung saja mengonsumsi buah crème yang telah dicuci bersih dan menggigitnya menggunakan gigi yang sedang bermasalah tersebut.

4. Jeruk Nipis
Jeruk NipisJeruk nipis adalah buah yang kaya dengan manfaat alaminya. Dengan kandungan vitamin C nya yang sungguh tinggi, jeruk nipis bisa juga anda manfaatkan untuk mengobati gigi goyang yang sedang anda alami. Bagaimana caranya? Simak uraian singkat berikut!

Siapkan satu butir jeruk nipis ukuran sedang, pilihlah yang sekiranya memiliki rasa lebih masam
Cuci bersih jeruk nipis, potong horizontal menjadi dua bagian
Ambil sejumput garam meja dan taru pada bagian dalam jeruk nipis
Oleskan bagian dalam jeruk nipis yang sudah diberi garam pada gigi yang goyang
Cuci bersih dengan berkumur menggunakan air hangat
Cara tersebut ternyata tidak hanya ampuh untuk mengatasi gigi goyang, tetapi juga berguna mengobati sakit gigi yang menahun atau terus-menerus. Dengan catatan anda harus berkumur menggunakan air hangat setelahnya.

5. Kunyit dan Lada
Kunyit dan LadaKunyit termasuk jenis rempah yang kaya akan manfaatnya bagi kesehatan tubuh. Salah satu manfaat rempah berwarna oranye ini adalah untuk membantu mengatasi gigi goyang. Caranya pun cukup mudah karena anda hanya diminya mempersiapkan kunyit dan lada hitam. Berikut langkah-langkahnya.

Sediakan 1 ruas kunyit, kupas dan cuci bersih
Siapkan lada hitam secukupnya
Campurkan kunyit dan lada hitam kemudian tumbuk hingga halus, campuran harus berbanding1:1 antara keduanya
Kemudian oleskan pada gusi menggunakan jari anda yang telah bersih sambil lakukan pemijatan ringan pada gusi yang mengalami gigi goyang
Kumur dan bersihkan mulut anda


Bisa juga campuran diperoleh dari bubuk kunyit dan bubuk lada hitam siap pakai yang banyak tersedia di supermarket. Lakukan cara yang sama seperti diatas dan bilas dengan air hingga bersih. Kunyit dan lada memiliki sifat anti inflamasi sehingga akan meredakan radang yang kemungkinan menjadi penyebab gigi goyang tersebut.

6. Strawberry
Buah StrawberryBuah yang satu ini pasti tidak anda kira bisa menyembuhkan gigi goyang anda bukan? Strawberry dengan manfaat alami vitamin C yang dimilikinya ternyata mampu digunakan untuk membantu gusi dan gigi kembali kuat. Apalagi jika penggunaannya dilakukan secara rutin setiap pagi dan malam hari.

Langkahnya:

Sediakan strawberry secukupnya, tanpa dikupas, cuci bersih
Sediakan air garam hangat sebanyak satu cangkir
Langkah awal adalah mengunyah strawberry di dalam mulut anda, kunyah hingga benar-benar halus. Usahakan yang banyak mengunyah atau menggigit strawberry tersebut adalah gigi yang sedang goyang
Kulum sekitar 15 detik, buang yang ada dalam mulut anda, kemudian bilas dengan berkumur air garam hangat yang telah disiapkan sebelumnya
Setelah air garam, usahakan anda membilasnya menggunakan air bersih.


7. Mencabut Gigi Yang Goyang
Ketika anda merasa bahwa gigi tersebut sudah tidak sehat dan bisa menggantikannya dengan fungsi gigi lain, maka sebaiknya dilakukan pencabutan permanen.

Dokter akan menyarankan penambahan gigi palsu jika pencabutan gigi tergolong pada bagian gigi yang mengganggu penampilan terutama bagian depan. Anda pun bisa memikirkan langkah yang terbaik.

Banyak cara untuk mengatasi gigi goyang tersebut yang menggunakan garam. Garam memang mengandung banyak mineral yang dibutuhkan tubuh, magnesium untuk kesehatan tulang dan gigi. Secara umum, garam memang dinilai mampu mengatasi persoalan gigi goyang atau hampir rapuh bagi orang dewasa. Oleh sebab itu, pengobatan lebih disarankan menggunakan garam sebagai metode terapi.

Sesungguhnya penanganan gigi goyang yang telah disebutkan diatas adalah cara untuk mengamankan gigi goyang anda agar tidak patah. Namun, disarankan apabila kondisi gigi sudah tidak utuh atau tidak sehat lagi, demi menjaga kesehatan mulut secara total anda harus mencabutnya ke dokter gigi untuk menghindari risiko lainnya. Jadi, bahan alami bisa anda manfaatkan selagi gigi masih memungkinkan untuk diatasi, selebihnya anda tetap harus berkonsultasi pada medis untuk kepastian yang lebih optimal tentang kondisi gigi anda.

HORMONES

🔹 Hormones of the thyroid gland:
are involved in all metabolic processes, and especially their influence is noticeable where the metabolism is most intense. Skin, hair and nails must be constantly updated, otherwise old cells will not be able to fully cope with their function. With a lack of thyroid hormones, the skin loses its elasticity and becomes dry, thinner. Hair fade, become brittle, drop out, and can even turn gray ..

🔹 Dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA -
a hormone of the adrenal cortex. He is responsible for the regeneration of the skin and its tone. In addition to affecting the appearance, DHEA determines the general tone of the body, affects the mood and a sense of completeness.

🔹 Estrogen is a special hormone for a woman.
It determines the attractiveness and women's health to a greater extent. It is responsible for the elasticity and elasticity of the skin, its tone and sufficient moisture. It has a direct effect on the formation of collagen and elastin, skin regeneration ..

🔹Melatonin is a hormone of youth, sleep, seasonal rhythms and adaptation.
The main work of melatonin performs at night, at the same time it is produced a lot. With a lack of melatonin, the body begins to age rapidly. That is why a full night's sleep is so important, especially from 12 to 4. The secret is that melatonin can be produced only in total darkness. On the formation of melatonin, the light of the blue spectrum (the iPhones, laptops) is detrimental. TV, phone and other gadgets an hour before bedtime.

🔹Somatotropic hormone
has a significant effect on muscle tone, in particular, facial muscles, as well as skin tone and hydration. STG stimulates all the processes of renewal and growth in the body, because its deficiency is immediately reflected in appearance and well-being ..

🔹 Male hormones in the female body, as well as women's in the male body,
must be developed. They have that balancing effect, which allows the body to work in normal mode. But if a woman produces more testosterone than she needs, her female health and appearance suffers. In particular, an overabundance of testosterone causes acne, increased hair, thickening of the skin and increased production of sebum .

PENAWAR KENCING MANIS MENURUT KAEDAH PERUBATAN ISLAM

Setiap penyakit itu pasti diturunkan sekali dengan penawarnya. Tetapi manusia mestilah berusaha untuk mencarinya.

Ingatlah sabda Nabi SAW: "Bagi setiap penyakit ada ubatnya. Apabila betul ubatnya, maka sembuhlah dengan izin Allah." (Riwayat Muslim).

Kencing manis dikhabarkan ibu kepada segala penyakit. Kalau dah terkena, siaplah bermacam-macam penyakit lain yang akan datang. Sangat merbahaya dan sungguh menakutkan. Jika sesiapa pernah membaca artikel kesihatan yang berkaitan penyakit ini, biasanya pesakit akan menjadi kurus, kulit jadi hitam, sel-sel mati dan akhirnya mungkin ada anggota yang terpaksa dibuang.

Di sini saya ingin berkongsi salah satu penawar yang dikatakan amat berkesan untuk melawan dan boleh sembuh dari penyakit ini dengan izinNYA.....insha ALLAH!

Bahan:
1 Biji kelapa muda (isinya sedang berhingus)
3 Batang serai makan
7 Biji halba

Caranya:
Ketuk 3 batang serai makan dan masuk ke dalam kelapa muda. Masukkan 7 biji halba juga ke dalam kelapa muda. Kacau rata air kelapa dengan menggunakan serai tadi hingga sebati semuanya dengan isi kelapa. Letakkan kelapa di atas dapur/api. Minumlah airnya dalam keadaan suam. 1 biji kelapa untuk 2 hari minum. Buat sehingga cukup 7 biji kelapa iaitu untuk 14 hari.
Bagi pesakit darah tinggi dan sakit berkaitan jantung boleh gunakan kaedah sama.

(A.G.E) Advanced Glycation Endproducts-

Our body grows old for several internal and external reasons.
Among them: genetic predisposition, changes in the hormonal background, photoaging due to exposure to sunlight, nutritional deficiencies, the effects of toxins (tobacco, alcohol, etc.).
.
📌In the center of the mechanism of aging there are two chemical reactions - oxidation and glycation.
.
✅Glikation is a chemical reaction that occurs as a result of fixation of free sugars on protein molecules. It affects the entire body. At the last stage of this chemical reaction, the final products of glycosylation appear - Advanced Glycation Endproducts (A.G.E). They are one of the main causes of skin aging, because the effects of glycation are most susceptible to elastin and collagen, the proteins of the dermis. Over time, they become increasingly stiff and harder because of the increasing fixation of sugars on protein molecules. And as a result: flabbiness, wrinkles, pigmentation and redness, a violation of skin scarring. All these signs of aging are directly or indirectly caused by the process of glycosylation, which in our body occurs continuously, and with age only worsens.
.
✅ Among the common effects of glycation, the most important are: weakening of immunity, renal failure, damage to nerve cells (Alzheimer's disease), complications of diabetes, clouding of the eye crystal, cardiovascular problems.
.
✅ In dermatology, the results of glycation are manifested in increased vascular permeability and their expansion, deterioration of the properties of elastin and collagen, slowing the healing process of scars and wounds.
.
At birth, the level of glycation in the body of a young child is very low, but with age it is getting higher and higher - the process of accumulation of the final products of glycosylation - A.G.E. For example, the higher the level of glycation in the body, the faster and stronger a person will have bruises after minor strokes and heal the wounds longer. It is the level of glycation that corresponds to our biological age.
Unfortunately, our body does not have a protective system against glycation.

HAIR GROW VIDEOS

The 5 Worst Foods To Eat If You Have Arthritis (beware!)

#1 WORST Food For Arthritis

Harvard researchers recently revealed that the more sugary soda men with knee osteoarthritis drink, the more likely the condition is to get worse. Even though increased consumption of soda is linked to weight gain, a known risk factor for osteoarthritis, the link was true regardless of the men’s weight.

This suggests the soda itself may be responsible for worsening the arthritis, although a cause-and-effect link has not been proven.

Cookies, candy, ice cream, brownies, doughnuts … all of these are loaded with sugar, which drives up your blood sugar and insulin, along with levels of inflammatory messengers called cytokines.

It may seem like this list of the 5 worst foods for arthritis includes all the foods you love to eat and that you must basically eat plain, unsatisfying foods in order to be free of arthritis pain... Not so fast!

http://losethebackpain.com/hns_arthritis-LBP074.html

RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS PROBLEM VIDEOS

THE BEST RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS NATURAL REMEDIES

Exercise and stretching as rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies. An effective ointment or cream containing rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies like menthol, Belladonna, Ignatia, MSM, Phosphorus, Rhus Tox, Naja and Lachesis Mutus is proven to bring instant relief in the soaring pain of arthritis. When you apply a great ointment or cream that contains these pain relieving ingredients, it would be one of the best rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies yow will discover for yourself.

not enough sleep
muscle pain
pain or swelling
sophistication in moving the joints

Coconut or even Mustard Oil- humid mustard engine oil or coconut oil, combined with 2-3 parts of camphor used in as rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies on joints that are aching and stiff. It’s going to add to blood give, and reduce stiffness and inflammation due to the soothing effect produced while massaging.

Garlic- It has anti-inflammatory product which explains its usefulness in the healing of this illness. Garlic can be available uncooked or cooked with regards to patient’s preference. Bananas- A banana diet for 3 or 4 days is recommended within curing this ailment. The sufferer possibly will eat eight to 90 years bananas every day all through this rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies period.

Lime- Dilute the juice of a lime using a glass of water. This is consumed once a day and if at all likely first thing with the day. Alfalfa- Put a teaspoon of alfalfa seeds to a cup of water. A minimum of 3 to 4 glasses of this tea should be studied every day for no less than two weeks.
Green Gram Soup- This soup is prepared through the process of diluting a tablespoon of green gram within a glass of water and two crushed garlic cloves. The mixture should be taken twice daily as rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies.

Castor Oil- healing with castor oil may be discovered rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies beneficial in arthritis. It is prescribed by doctors to simmer a couple tablespoons of castor petrol. The oil should next be mixed into one cup of fresh orange juice. This mixture must be taken prior to breakfast every day until the ailment is usually cured.

Potato Juice- The standard process of getting set a potato juice may be to slice a medium-sized potato into thin pieces without taking off the skin then give the slices overnight in a huge glass filled with cold water. Drink the water in first think in the morning on an empty belly as rheumatoid arthritis remedies.
Sesame Seeds- A teaspoon of black sesame seeds saturated within a 1/4 cup of water which was set aside during the night time has been proven to remain helpful in avoiding recurrent pain. The rheumatoid arthritis natural remedies should be studied first thing in the morning.

HOW TO HEAL ARTHRITIS NATURALLY WITH CASTOR OIL

Castor oil comes from the castor seed, Ricinus communis, and is native to India. Due to its unusual composition, castor oil has a number of heath benefits and healing properties. Castor oil contains ricinoleic acid – a unique fatty acid that has been used medicinally for a long time. Over the years it has also been used as an ingredient in skin care products, as food additives, and in the manufacturing industry. The FDA has labeled castor oil as safe and effective and along with the World Health Organization has established the recommended daily intake of castor oil of up to 0.7mg/kg body weight. This works out to approximately one tablespoon of castor oil for adults and one teaspoon for children.

Due to its immunity strengthening and anti-inflammatory properties, castor oil is used to treat yeast infections, constipation, digestive problems, menstrual disorders, headaches, acne, inflammation, Parkinson’s disease and Multiple Sclerosis. One of the main benefits of castor oil is its use in the treatment of arthritis. Arthritis refers to the inflammation of the joints in the body. If you suffer from arthritis, you will experience a range of unpleasant symptoms such as severe pain in the joint areas along with swelling and stiffness. While medication can provide pain relief and reduce inflammation, a more preferable long-term solution for arthritis involves natural remedies or cures with fewer side effects.

Castor oil arthritis cures are considered effective and safe as compared to some other natural remedies. There are several different ways castor oil can be used to treat arthritis and some of these ways are:

1) Soak a cloth in castor oil and place it on the affected joints and swollen parts of the body. To make this remedy more effective, place a hot water bottle over the soaked cloth and leave for up to 45 minutes. This helps reduce inflammation and pain in the joints.

2) Castor oil can also be taken orally to treat arthritis. Simply mix a tablespoon of castor oil in the beverage of your choice. This could be your morning cup of tea or coffee or a juice or in a glass of milk last thing at night.

3) People with arthritis can reduce pain and stiffness in the joints by massaging the affected areas with warm castor oil. Make sure that the oil is not too hot or it will scald the skin. Perform this gentle massage every night before sleeping. Leave the oil on your skin overnight to allow for proper absorption to maximize its healing benefits.

4) In severe cases of arthritis, boil a glass of water and mix in a pinch of ginger powder. Cool this water; add two tablespoons of castor oil and mix well before drinking. The best time to drink this concoction is first thing in the morning or last thing at night.

5) If you are strapped for time or hate the taste of castor oil, you can have a castor oil capsule or supplement instead but keep in mind that this alternative is not as effective as pure castor oil

6) When buying castor oil, stick to brands available at a health food store as castor oil available at a supermarket may be meant for industrial use and may not be safe for human consumption. Look for oil that is pale yellow or light in color and is cold-pressed only. While castor oil is considered safe when taken in moderation, precautions should be taken especially when ingesting the oil. An overdose of castor oil could lead to side effects such as vomiting, nausea, cramps and stomach pain. Pregnant or breastfeeding women should avoid castor oil treatments as should people with acute intestinal problems. It is always best to consult with your doctor before beginning any new treatment, as there are cases where even natural remedies such as castor oil could counteract with your regular medication and lead to other complications.

Cara Manghapuskan Urat Timbul

Cara Manghapuskan Urat Timbul

Menghapuskan Urat Timbul Di Kaki Sewaktu Mengandung

Petua 2 : Campur sedikit asam jawa dan air sehingga pekat. Sapukan pada kaki setiap malam. Tinggikan kaki sedikit ketika tidur.

Petua 3 : Campurkan sebuku ragi, sedikit air limau nipis dan air hingga sebati. Sapukan pada urat yang timbul pada setiap malam. Apabila tidur letakkan kaki di atas bantal.

Petua 4 : Rebus kacang hijau, minum airnya setiap pagi dan petang. Buat senaman angkat kaki 10 minit sebelum tidur.


Read more: http://petuaseharian.blogspot.com/2013/08/cara-manghapuskan-urat-timbul.html#ixzz2bsbcXrXK

STOMACH

In some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects (mid-gut) and molluscs, the stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as an important organ of the digestive tract. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication (chewing). The stomach is located between the oesophagus and the small intestine. It secretes protein-digesting enzymes and strong acids to aid in food digestion, (sent to it via oesophageal peristalsis) through smooth muscular contortions (called segmentation) before sending partially digested food (chyme) to the small intestines.
The word stomach is derived from the Latin stomachus which is derived from the Greek word stomachos, ultimately from stoma (στόμα), "mouth". The words gastro- and gastric (meaning related to the stomach) are both derived from the Greek word gaster (γαστήρ).

Contents [hide] 1 Role in digestion 2 Anatomy of the stomach 2.1 Sections 2.2 Blood supply 2.3 Glands 3 Control of secretion and motility 4 EGF in gastric defense 5 Stomach as nutrition sensor 6 Diseases of the stomach 7 In other animals 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Role in digestion

Bolus (masticated food) enters the stomach through the oesophagus via the oesophageal sphincter. The stomach releases proteases (protein-digesting enzymes such as pepsin) and hydrochloric acid, which kills or inhibits bacteria and provides the acidic pH of 2 for the proteases to work. Food is churned by the stomach through muscular contractions of the wall - reducing the volume of the fundus, before looping around the fundus^[3] and the body of stomach as the boluses are converted into chyme (partially digested food). Chyme slowly passes through the pyloric sphincter and into the duodenum, where the extraction of nutrients begins. Depending on the quantity and contents of the meal, the stomach will digest the food into chyme anywhere between 40 minutes and a few hours.

[edit] Anatomy of the stomach

The stomach lies between the oesophagus and the duodenum (the first part of the small intestine). It is on the left upper part of the abdominal cavity. The top of the stomach lies against the diaphragm. Lying behind the stomach is the pancreas. The greater omentum hangs down from the greater curvature.
Two sphincters keep the contents of the stomach contained. They are the esophageal sphincter (found in the cardiac region, not an anatomical sphincter) dividing the tract above, and the Pyloric sphincter dividing the stomach from the small intestine.
The stomach is surrounded by parasympathetic (stimulant) and orthosympathetic (inhibitor) plexuses (networks of blood vessels and nerves in the anterior gastric, posterior, superior and inferior, celiac and myenteric), which regulate both the secretions activity and the motor (motion) activity of its muscles.
In adult humans, the stomach has a relaxed, near empty volume of about 45 ml. Because it is a distensible organ, it normally expands to hold about 1 litre of food,^[4] but can hold as much as 2-3 litres. The stomach of a newborn human baby will only be able to retain about 30ml.

[edit] Sections

The stomach is divided into 4 sections, each of which has different cells and functions. The sections are:

Cardia	Where the contents of the oesophagus empty into the stomach.
Fundus	Formed by the upper curvature of the organ.
Body or Corpus	The main, central region.
Pylorus	The lower section of the organ that facilitates emptying the contents into the small intestine.

Sections of the stomach

[edit] Blood supply

Schematic image of the blood supply to the stomach: left and right gastric artery, left and right gastro-omental artery and short gastric artery.^[5]

A more realistic image, showing the celiac artery and its branches; the liver has been raised, and the lesser omentum and anterior layer of the greater omentum removed.

The lesser curvature of the stomach is supplied by the right gastric artery inferiorly, and the left gastric artery superiorly, which also supplies the cardiac region. The greater curvature is supplied by the right gastroepiploic artery inferiorly and the left gastroepiploic artery superiorly. The fundus of the stomach, and also the upper portion of the greater curvature, are supplied by the short gastric artery.
Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls are made of the following layers, from inside to outside:

mucosa	The first main layer. This consists of the epithelium and the lamina propria (composed of loose connective tissue), with a thin layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosae separating it from the submucosa beneath.
submucosa	This layer lies over the mucosa and consists of fibrous connective tissue, separating the mucosa from the next layer. The Meissner's plexus is in this layer.
muscularis externa	Over the submucosa, the muscularis externa in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that it has three layers of smooth muscle instead of two. inner oblique layer: This layer is responsible for creating the motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. It is the only layer of the three which is not seen in other parts of the digestive system. The antrum has thicker skin cells in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus. middle circular layer: At this layer, the pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall which is normally tonically constricted forming a functional (if not anatomically discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme into the duodenum. This layer is concentric to the longitudinal axis of the stomach. outer longitudinal layer: Auerbach's plexus is found between this layer and the middle circular layer.
serosa	This layer is over the muscularis externa, consisting of layers of connective tissue continuous with the peritoneum.

Micrograph showing a cross section of the stomach wall, in the body portion of the stomach. H&E stain.

Microscopic cross section of the pyloric part of the stomach wall.

[edit] Glands

The epithelium of the stomach forms deep pits. The glands at these locations are named for the corresponding part of the stomach:

Cardiac glands (at cardia)	Pyloric glands (at pylorus)	Fundic glands (at fundus)

Different types of cells are found at the different layers of these glands:

Layer of stomach	Name	Secretion	Region of stomach	Staining
Isthmus of gland	Mucous neck cells	mucus gel layer	Fundic, cardiac, pyloric	Clear
Body of gland	parietal (oxyntic) cells	gastric acid and intrinsic factor	Fundic only	Acidophilic
Base of gland	chief (zymogenic) cells	pepsinogen	Fundic only	Basophilic
Base of gland	enteroendocrine (APUD) cells	hormones gastrin, histamine, endorphins, serotonin, cholecystokinin and somatostatin	Fundic, cardiac, pyloric	-

[edit] Control of secretion and motility

The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled by both the autonomic nervous system and by the various digestive system hormones:

Gastrin	The hormone gastrin causes an increase in the secretion of HCl from the parietal cells, and pepsinogen from chief cells in the stomach. It also causes increased motility in the stomach. Gastrin is released by G-cells in the stomach in response to distenstion of the antrum, and digestive products(especially large quantities of incompletely digested proteins). It is inhibited by a pH normally less than 4 (high acid), as well as the hormone somatostatin.
Cholecystokinin	Cholecystokinin (CCK) has most effect on the gall bladder, causing gall bladder contractions, but it also decreases gastric emptying and increases release of pancreatic juice which is alkaline and neutralizes the chyme.
Secretin	In a different and rare manner, secretin, produced in the small intestine, has most effects on the pancreas, but will also diminish acid secretion in the stomach.
Gastric inhibitory peptide	Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) decreases both gastric acid release and motility.
Enteroglucagon	enteroglucagon decreases both gastric acid and motility.

Other than gastrin, these hormones all act to turn off the stomach action. This is in response to food products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been absorbed. The stomach needs only to push food into the small intestine when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still digesting food, the stomach acts as storage for food.

[edit] EGF in gastric defense

Epidermal growth factor or EGF results in cellular proliferation, differentiation, and survival.^[6] EGF is a low-molecular-weight polypeptide first purified from the mouse submandibular gland, but since then found in many human tissues including submandibular gland, parotid gland. Salivary EGF, which seems also regulated by dietary inorganic iodine, plays also an important physiological role in the maintenance of oro-oesophageal and gastric tissue integrity. The biological effects of salivary EGF include healing of oral and gastroesophageal ulcers, inhibition of gastric acid secretion, stimulation of DNA synthesis as well as mucosal protection from intraluminal injurious factors such as gastric acid, bile acids, pepsin, and trypsin and to physical, chemical and bacterial agents.^[7]

[edit] Stomach as nutrition sensor

The stomach can "taste" sodium glutamate using glutamate receptors^[8] and this information is passed to the lateral hypothalamus and limbic system in the brain as a palatability signal through the vagus nerve.^[9] The stomach can also sense independently to tongue and oral taste receptors glucose,^[10] carbohydrates^[11] proteins,^[11] and fats.^[12] This allows the brain to link nutritional value of foods to their tastes.^[10]

[edit] Diseases of the stomach

Main article: Stomach disease

Historically, it was widely believed that the highly acidic environment of the stomach would keep the stomach immune from infection. However, a large number of studies have indicated that most cases of peptic ulcers, gastritis, and stomach cancer are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection.

[edit] In other animals

An endoscopy of a normal stomach of a healthy 65-year-old woman.

Although the precise shape and size of the stomach varies widely among different vertebrates, the relative positions of the oesophageal and duodenal openings remain relatively constant. As a result, the organ always curves somewhat to the left before curving back to meet the pyloric sphincter. However, lampreys, hagfishes, chimaeras, lungfishes, and some teleost fish have no stomach at all, with the oesophagus opening directly into the intestine. These animals all consume diets that either require little storage of food, or no pre-digestion with gastric juices, or both.^[13]
The gastric lining is usually divided into two regions, an anterior portion lined by fundic glands, and a posterior with pyloric glands. Cardiac glands are unique to mammals, and even then are absent in a number of species. The distributions of these glands vary between species, and do not always correspond with the same regions as in man. Furthermore, in many non-human mammals, a portion of the stomach anterior to the cardiac glands is lined with epithelium essentially identical to that of the oesophagus. Ruminants, in particular, have a complex stomach, the first three chambers of which are all lined with oesophageal mucosa.^[13]
In birds and crocodilians, the stomach is divided into two regions. Anteriorly is a narrow tubular region, the proventriculus, lined by fundic glands, and connecting the true stomach to the crop. Beyond lies the powerful muscular gizzard, lined by pyloric glands, and, in some species, containing stones that the animal swallows to help grind up food.^[13]

Comparison of stomach glandular regions from several mammalian species. Yellow: oesophagus; green: aglandular epithelium; purple: cardiac glands; red: gastric glands; blue: pyloric glands; dark blue: duodenum. Frequency of glands may vary more smoothly between regions than is diagrammed here. Asterisk (ruminant) represents the omasum, which is absent in Tylopoda (Tylopoda also has some cardiac glands opening onto ventral reticulum and rumen^[14]) Many other variations exist among the mammals.^[15][16]

[edit] See also

• Bariatric Surgery, Weight Loss Surgery
• Foveolar cells, mucous producing cells of the stomach
• Peristalsis, muscular movement that occurs in the stomach
• Borborygmus, growling of stomach
• Digestion
• Gastroesophageal reflux disease
• Discovery and Development of Proton Pump Inhibitors

PANCREAS

For other uses, see Pancreas (disambiguation).

Pancreas
the pancreas
1: Head of pancreas 2: Uncinate process of pancreas 3: Pancreatic notch 4: Body of pancreas 5: Anterior surface of pancreas 6: Inferior surface of pancreas 7: Superior margin of pancreas 8: Anterior margin of pancreas 9: Inferior margin of pancreas 10: Omental tuber 11: Tail of pancreas 12: Duodenum
Gray's	subject #251 1199
Artery	inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, splenic artery
Vein	pancreaticoduodenal veins, pancreatic veins
Nerve	pancreatic plexus, celiac ganglia, vagus[1]
Precursor	pancreatic buds
MeSH	Pancreas
Dorlands/Elsevier	Pancreas

The pancreas (English pronunciation: /ˈpæŋkrɪəs/) is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.

Contents [hide] 1 Histology 2 Function 3 Anatomy 4 Diseases 5 History 6 Embryological development 7 In animals 8 Gallery 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Histology

Under a microscope, stained sections of the pancreas reveal two different types of parenchymal tissue.^[2] Lightly staining clusters of cells are called islets of Langerhans, which produce hormones that underlie the endocrine functions of the pancreas. Darker staining cells form acini connected to ducts. Acinar cells belong to the exocrine pancreas and secrete digestive enzymes into the gut via a system of ducts.

Structure	Appearance	Function
Islets of Langerhans	Lightly staining, large, spherical clusters	Hormone production and secretion (endocrine pancreas)
Pancreatic acini	Darker staining, small, berry-like clusters	Digestive enzyme production and secretion (exocrine pancreas)

[edit] Function

See also: endocrine pancreas and exocrine pancreas.

The pancreas is a dual-function gland, having features of both endocrine and exocrine glands.
The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a million^[3] cell clusters called islets of Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to distinguish using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretion: α cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood), β cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood), δ cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells), and PP cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide.^[4]
The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in clusters and cords and are crisscrossed by a dense network of capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of endocrine cells in direct contact with vessels, and most endocrine cells are in direct contact with blood vessels, by either cytoplasmic processes or by direct apposition. According to the volume The Body, by Alan E. Nourse,^[5] the islets are "busily manufacturing their hormone and generally disregarding the pancreatic cells all around them, as though they were located in some completely different part of the body." The islet of Langerhans plays an imperative role in glucose metabolism and regulation of blood glucose concentration.
The pancreas as an exocrine gland helps out the digestive system. It secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats) in the chyme.
In humans, the secretory activity of the pancreas is regulated directly via the effect of hormones in the blood on the islets of Langerhans and indirectly through the effect of the autonomic nervous system on the blood flow.^[6]

Sympathetic (adrenergic)

α2: decreases secretion from beta cells, increases secretion from alpha cells, β2: increases secretion from beta cells

Parasympathetic (muscarinic)

M3: increases stimulation of alpha cells and beta cells^[7]

[edit] Anatomy

Surface projections of the organs of the trunk, showing pancreas at the transpyloric plane

1. Bile ducts: 2. Intrahepatic bile ducts, 3. Left and right hepatic ducts, 4. Common hepatic duct, 5. Cystic duct, 6. Common bile duct, 7. Ampulla of Vater, 8. Major duodenal papilla
9. Gallbladder, 10-11. Right and left lobes of liver. 12. Spleen.
13. Esophagus. 14. Stomach. Small intestine: 15. Duodenum, 16. Jejunum
17. Pancreas: 18: Accessory pancreatic duct, 19: Pancreatic duct.
20-21: Right and left kidneys (silhouette).
The anterior border of the liver is lifted upwards (brown arrow). Gallbladder with Longitudinal section, pancreas and duodenum with frontal one. Intrahepatic ducts and stomach in transparency.

The pancreas lies in the epigastrium and left hypochondrium areas of the abdomen
It is composed of the following parts:

• The head lies within the concavity of the duodenum.
• The uncinate process emerges from the lower part of head, and lies deep to superior mesenteric vessels.
• The neck is the constricted part between the head and the body.
• The body lies behind the stomach.
• The tail is the left end of the pancreas. It lies in contact with the spleen and runs in the lienorenal ligament.

The superior pancreaticoduodenal artery from gastroduodenal artery and the inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery from superior mesenteric artery run in the groove between the pancreas and duodenum and supply the head of pancreas. The pancreatic branches of splenic artery also supply the neck, body and tail of the pancreas. The largest of those branches is called the arteria pancreatica magna; its occlusion, although rare, is fatal.
The body and neck of the pancreas drain into splenic vein; the head drains into the superior mesenteric and portal veins.
Lymph is drained via the splenic, celiac and superior mesenteric lymph nodes.

[edit] Diseases

Main article: Pancreatic disease

Because the pancreas is a storage depot for digestive enzymes, injury to the pancreas is potentially very dangerous. A puncture of the pancreas generally requires prompt and experienced medical intervention.
Pancreatic cancers, particularly cancer of the exocrine pancreas, remain one of the most deadly cancers, and the mortality rate is very high.
Diabetes mellitus type 1 is a chronic autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas.

[edit] History

The pancreas was first identified for western civilization by Herophilus (335–280 BC), a Greek anatomist and surgeon. Only a few hundred years later, Rufus of Ephesus, another Greek anatomist, gave the pancreas its name. The term "pancreas" is derived from the Greek πᾶν ("all", "whole"), and κρέας ("flesh").^[8] – presumably because of its fleshy consistency.

[edit] Embryological development

Schematic illustrating the development of the pancreas from a dorsal and a ventral bud. During maturation the ventral bud flips to the other side of the gut tube (arrow) where it typically fuses with the dorsal lobe. An additional ventral lobe which usually regress during development is omitted.

The pancreas forms from the embryonic foregut and is therefore of endodermal origin. Pancreatic development begins [with] the formation of a ventral and dorsal anlage (or buds). Each structure communicates with the foregut through a duct. The ventral pancreatic bud becomes the head and uncinate process, and comes from the hepatic diverticulum.
Differential rotation and fusion of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds results in the formation of the definitive pancreas.^[9] As the duodenum rotates to the right, it carries with it the ventral pancreatic bud and common bile duct. Upon reaching its final destination, the ventral pancreatic bud fuses with the much larger dorsal pancreatic bud. At this point of fusion, the main ducts of the ventral and dorsal pancreatic buds fuse, forming the duct of Wirsung, the main pancreatic duct.
Differentiation of cells of the pancreas proceeds through two different pathways, corresponding to the dual endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas. In progenitor cells of the exocrine pancreas, important molecules that induce differentiation include follistatin, fibroblast growth factors, and activation of the Notch receptor system.^[9] Development of the exocrine acini progresses through three successive stages. These include the predifferentiated, protodifferentiated, and differentiated stages, which correspond to undetectable, low, and high levels of digestive enzyme activity, respectively.
Progenitor cells of the endocrine pancreas arise from cells of the protodifferentiated stage of the exocrine pancreas.^[9] Under the influence of neurogenin-3 and Isl-1, but in the absence of notch receptor signaling, these cells differentiate to form two lines of committed endocrine precursor cells. The first line, under the direction of Pax-0, forms α- and γ- cells, which produce glucagon and pancreatic polypeptides, respectively. The second line, influenced by Pax-6, produces β- and δ-cells, which secrete insulin and somatostatin, respectively.
Insulin and glucagon can be detected in the human fetal circulation by the fourth or fifth month of fetal development.^[9]

[edit] In animals

Pancreatic tissue is present in all vertebrate species, but its precise form and arrangement varies widely. There may be up to three separate pancreases, two of which arise from ventral buds, and the other dorsally. In most species (including humans), these fuse in the adult, but there are several exceptions. Even when a single pancreas is present, two or three pancreatic ducts may persist, each draining separately into the duodenum (or equivalent part of the foregut). Birds, for example, typically have three such ducts.^[10]
In teleosts, and a few other species (such as rabbits), there is no discrete pancreas at all, with pancreatic tissue being distributed diffusely across the mesentery and even within other nearby organs, such as the liver or spleen. In a few teleost species, the endocrine tissue has fused to form a distinct gland within the abdominal cavity, but otherwise it is distributed amongst the exocrine components. The most primitive arrangement, however, appears to be that of lampreys and lungfish, in which pancreatic tissue is found as a number of discrete nodules within the wall of the gut itself, with the exocrine portions being little different from other glandular structures of the intestine.^[10]

[edit] Gallery

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  Accessory digestive system
  
• 

  Digestive organs
  
• 

  The celiac artery and its branches; the stomach has been raised and the peritoneum removed.
  
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  Lymphatics of stomach, etc., the stomach has been turned upward.
  
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  Transverse section through the middle of the first lumbar vertebra, showing the relations of the pancreas
  
• 

  The duodenum and pancreas
  
• 

  The pancreatic duct
  
• 

  Pancreas of a human embryo of five weeks
  
• 

  Pancreas of a human embryo at end of sixth week
  
• 

  Front of abdomen, showing surface markings for duodenum, pancreas, and kidneys
  
• 
• 

  Dog pancreas magnified 100 times